8. Eucharistic Conference with Luther at Marburg
To this period of Zwingli's life also belongs the
debate with Luther over the Lord's Supper, one of
the great misfortunes the consequences of which
are felt to-day. As Luther said at Marburg, he and
Zwingli were not of the same spirit. Zwingli taught
that the sacraments were signs and symbols of
holy things, but in themselves had no power
to cleanse, so that in the Lord's Supper there
is a bringing back to memory of the work of
grace done by Jesus Christ, who lives before the
believer, though there is no participation of grace
through the sacrament itself. He had a clear mind
upon this point, and the mystical
view in any of its phases had no
attractions for him. Consequently, the
interchange of reading material
between himself and Luther
accomplished nothing, and only angered
Luther. Thus baptism and the Eucharist,
which were intended by Christ to be unifying
practices, produced by their varied interpretation a
breach between the Old Church and Protestants and
between parties among the Protestants. Among the
leaders of the Protestants was Philip the
Magnanimous, landgrave of Hesse (see PHILIP OF HESSE),
who desired to see unity among Protestants upon
the Eucharist, and to this end arranged a meeting
in his castle at Marburg between Zwingli and
Luther (see MARBURG, CONFERENCE OF), which had
one good result. Luther discovered that he and
Zwingli had much in common. Although the
territory through which Zwingli had to pass on his
way to Marburg was, with the exception of a
few miles, friendly to Protestants, yet so
panic-stricken
were Zwingli and all his friends at the
possibility of encountering members of the Old
Church on their own ground that the Reformer
considered himself to be doing a bold thing in obeying
the summons of the landgrave. He left Zürich by
stealth, without permission of the government and
with a false statement to his wife as to his
destination, but nothing happened to him. As it was
thought unwise to pit him directly against Luther,
he was introduced to Melanchthon, but nevertheless
the debate was between the German and the
Swiss chief reformers. Both sides boasted of
victory, and the usual interchange of disgraceful
epithets followed the debate which the landgrave hoped
would seal their union.
9. Unsuccessful Plans against the Hapsburgs and the Pope.
After his return to Zürich Zwingli prosecuted more
vigorously those political schemes which were
intended to result in a union of all Protestants, and
also of states which were not Protestant, against the
house of Hapsburg and the pope, in the interest of
religious liberty. The time Zwingli gave to these
negotiations must have been considerable, for he
sought to unite in this "Christian Burgher Rights,"
as he called his league, bodies as widely scattered
as France and the Republic of Venice. What might
have come of this scheme if his life had been longer
continued it is, of course, impossible to say, but in
1530 he saw the making of the Schmalkald League,
which shut off Lutheran membership in the
Christian Burgher Rights, and the final refusal of France
and Venice to enter. Inside of
Switzerland Zwingli's schemes for
religious liberty were equally unsuccessful,
since the Five Forest Cantons, i.e.,
the cantons of Uri, Schwyz,
Unterwalden, Luzern, and Zug, all
adjoining Zürich, refused to allow the
preaching of the Reformed faith within
their borders. War actually broke out;
but at Kappel, ten miles south of Zürich, where the
opposing armies were about to come to blows,
a hasty and ill-considered peace was patched
up. The Forest Cantons refused to ratify the
action of their representatives, and so the bill for the
war was left unpaid by them, and the gospel
preachers were still excluded from their territories. Zwingli
saw clearly that such a peace was transitory, but
though he wished that the cantons might be forced
to keep the promises they had made, he did not
desire to have them forced by the cruel measures which
the Protestant cantons adopted, namely, by
preventing the Forest Cantons from buying necessary
things, especially salt, by blocking their entrance
into the lower levels where alone these things could
be obtained.
10. Diet of Augsburg and Work in Zürich.
On June 30, 1530, the famous Diet of Augsburg
convened. To it Zwingli sent a brief confession of
faith and tried, probably unsuccessfully, to get it
into the emperor's hands. It was a personal
confession, but is one of the most interesting documents
of the Reformation. In it he thus expresses himself
respecting the Eucharist: "I believe that in the
holy Eucharist-- i.e., the supper of thanksgiving--
the true body of Christ is present by
the contemplation of faith; i.e., that
they who thank the Lord for the
kindness conferred on us in his Son
acknowledge that he assumed true flesh, in it
truly suffered, truly washed away our
sins in his own blood; and thus everything done by
Christ becomes present to them by the contemplation
of faith. But that the body of Christ in essence
and really-- i.e., the natural body itself-- is either
present in the supper or masticated with our mouth
or teeth, as the papists and some who long for the
flesh-pots of Egypt assert, we not only deny, but
firmly maintain is an error opposed to God's Word."
Zwingli played a prominent part in Protestantism
and made Zürich a prominent place. His
educational work was important. He was a born teacher,
and when at Glarus had pupils, some of whose
letters have been preserved and show how well he had
taught them. His little book which was his present
to his stepson reveals the wise pedagogue, and so, as
soon as his other engagements permitted, he
accepted the post of rector of the Carolinum, the
school of the Great Minster in Zürich (1525), and
did much to improve the curriculum, besides
teaching there in the religious department. But not
education and instruction alone claimed his attention.
He was the great man of Zürich, and was consulted
on every topic by everybody from the chief
magistrate to the lowliest citizen. His correspondence
often compelled him to toil late into the night after
the crowded days, and there came from his pen a
stream of treatises, in Latin when he sought the
widest public, or in German when he had his own
nation more in view. These treatises were
sometimes hastily written and are often of little present
interest, but moat of them are still worthy of reading.
They are polemical, as those in exchange with
Luther's on the Eucharist; expository of his
position on theology in general or upon particular
points; practical, giving guidance to the preachers
about him how to preach the Gospel; or patriotic,
noble utterances against war and the mercenary
service. These writings show the broad-mindedness
of Zwingli, and give ground for the claim that if he
were living to-day he would be in all respects a
modern man.
11. Civil War, and Death of Zwingli.
But this life of strenuous endeavor in so many
directions was drawing to its close, not through the
weakening of its bodily powers, not because under
a strain the brain had given way, but because the
fratricidal strife which had been temporarily avoided
broke out again. On May 15, 1531,
the cantons which had accepted the
Reformation assembled, and learning
that the Forest Cantons, which were
strongly Roman Catholic, had flatly
refused to keep the treaty which they
had signed through their representatives the year
before, resolved to bring them to terms by
preventing them from crossing their borders, as they
would have to do if they would purchase wheat, salt,
iron, steel, and other necessary things. It was a
cruel measure, as already said, and Zürich resisted it,
but was outvoted. As soon as this edict came to
execution, it brought the Forest Cantons to
warlike preparation, and since Zürich lay directly in
their path as they descended from the mountains,
they attacked it first. On Oct. 9, 1531, their troops
crossed the Zürich border, which was only twelve
miles from the city, and the news reached there
that evening. Strangely enough, there seems to
have been no apprehension that war was so near,
and, consequently, there was no adequate preparation
for it. It was a mob rather than a little army
of the famous Swiss soldiers which rushed out of
the city. Their objective was Kappel, and there
they were joined the next day, Wednesday, Oct. 11,
1531, by the main army. With it was Zwingli,
dressed in armor, it is true, though he was a
noncombatant, but he staid in the rear of the battle, and
was there because he was the chief pastor of Zürich.
It was a foregone conclusion that Zürich would be
overthrown. She had only 2,700 men against 8,000
and they were very badly led. Overwhelmed, it
took only a short time to be almost annihilated,
and the battle of Kappel was a repetition of Flodden
Field (Sept. 9, 1513). Five hundred Zürichers were
slain, among them representatives of every
prominent family in the city. But the greatest of them
was Zwingli. Wounded first by a spear, and then
struck on the head by a stone, he was put out of his
misery by a sword thrust. He lay unrecognized for
a while, but when it became known that the corpse
was that of Zwingli, it was treated with every
indignity because he was held to be the author of the
regulations which had brought on the war, which
was not true, and also as the leader of the
Reformation, which was true. The body was given over to
the hangman, who quartered it as if it had been that
of a traitor, and then burned it, as if that of a
heretic. The war ended in a treaty which was, of
course, favorable to the Forest Cantons, though not
so harsh as might have been expected. But all
Zwingli's plans for a league of princes, cantons, and
cities against pope and emperor, and all his hopes
of providing the Old Church cantons with Reformed
Church missionaries were forever ended. Much
that he stood for in church practice and in theology
did not long outlive him. Music was restored to the
churches (1598) and his eucharistic views were
superseded among the Reformed by those of Calvin.
Yet, as he becomes better known, his
clear-headedness, his independence, and his progressiveness will
gain him increasing fame, and men will put him
beside Luther as a leader of the Protestant host.
Text to integrate from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia
Founder of the Reformation in Switzerland, born at Wildhaus in Switzerland, 1 January, 1484; died 11 October, 1531. Zwingli came from a prominent family of the middle classes, and was the third of eight sons. His father Ulrich was a district official of the little town of Wildhaus, and a cousin of his mother, Margaret Meili, was abbot of the Benedictine monastery in Fischingen in Thurgau. A brother of the elder Zwingli, Bartholomew, was pastor of Wildhaus until 1487, but then became pastor and dean of Wesen on the Walensee. Zwingli received his early education at Wesen under the guidance of this uncle, by whom he was sent, at the age of ten, to Gregory Bunzli of Wesen who was studying at Basle and also teaching in the school of St. Theodore, which Zwingli henceforth attended. For his higher studies he went to Berne, whither the celebrated Swiss Humanist Schuler was attracting many students for Classical studies. Zwingli's name is entered on the roll of the University of Vienna for the winter term of 1498-99, but he was excluded from the university. The reason for his exclusion is unknown. Zwingli appears, however, to have overcome the difficulty, for he was again matriculated in 1500. Two years later he returned to Basle, where, among others, Thomas Wyttenbach encouraged him to devote himself to the serious study of theology. In 1506 he completed his studies and received the degree of Master of Theology. Shortly before his graduation the parish of Glarus had selected him as its pastor, although he had not yet been ordained priest. Apart from his exclusion from the University of Vienna, his student life presents no unusual features, though his later friends and followers relate much that is laudatory about this period. His studies at Berne, Vienna, and Basle, where Humanism was eagerly cultivated, made Zwingli one of its zealous supporters.
As pastor of Glarus from 1506 to 1516, the continuation of his humanistic studies was one of Zwingli's chief occupations. He studied Greek, read the Classics and the Fathers of the Church, and entered into familiar intercourse with the Humanists of the time, especially with Heinrich Loriti (Glareanus), Erasmus,and Vadian. He also engaged in teaching, and the later chroniclers Aegidius and Valentine Tschudi were his pupils. In public life he was chiefly conspicuous for his political activity, in this respect following the example of many ecclesiastics of his day. In the Italian campaigns of 1513 and 1515, when the Swiss won the victories of Novara and Marignan, he acted as army chaplain. His earliest literary attempts - the rhymed fables of the ox (about 1510), "De Gestis inter Gallos et Helvetios relatio" (1512), "The Labyrinth" (1516?) - are all concerned with politics. These works, which reveal Zwingli as the devoted adherent and champion of the papal party, won him the friendship of the powerful Swiss cardinal Matthew Schinner and an annual pension of fifty gulden from the pope. So zealously indeed did he then espouse the cause of the pope that his position in Glarus became untenable when the French party became predominant there in 1516. Diebold von Geroldseck, the administrator and sole conventual in the Benedictine monastery at Einsiedeln, entrusted him with the position of a secular priest there, and at the end of 1516 Zwingli left Glarus.
As secular priest at Einsiedeln, the celebrated place of pilgrimage for Switzerland and South Germany, Zwingli's chief office was that of preacher. For the fulfilment of this task he devoted himself to the study of Holy Writ, copied the Epistles of St. Paul, and learned Hebrew, but did not meanwhile neglect the Classics, a fact which won him flattering praise from the Humanists. Erasmus was keenly aware of the laxity of ecclesiastical life (the abuses in external worship, the degeneracy of a large proportion of the clergy), and rightly agitated a reform within the Church, impressing its necessity on the ecclesiastical authorities. Zwingli worked in the same spirit at Einsiedeln from 1516 to 1518. In disputing Luther's priority, Zwingli later claimed (and most historians have supported his claim) that while at Einsiedeln he already preached against the old Faith. His claim is, however, negatived by the facts that he continued to draw his pension, that at the end of 1518, at his own petition, he was appointed by the pope acolyte chaplain of the Roman See (cf. the document in "Analecta reformatoria", I, 98), and that his friendly intercourse with Cardinal Schinner still continued when he was engaged at Zürich in 1519.
Towards the end of 1518, when the post of secular preacher at Münster became vacant, Zwingli applied for the vacancy at the invitation of Oswald Myconius (a friend of his youth), who was engaged as teacher in the monastery school of that place. Like many other clerics, Zwingli was suspected of offences against celibacy. These reports, which were current even in Zürich, made his position there difficult. When his friend Myconius questioned him on this point Zwingli wrote from Einsiedeln that it was not, as had been asserted, a respectable girl, but a common strumpet with whom he had been intimate. His friends in Zürich succeeded in suppressing these reports, and on 11 Dec., 1518, the chapter elected Zwingli by a great majority. He was then thirty-five years old, "in body a handsome and vigorous person, fairly tall, and of a friendly aspect". In his intercourse with others he was an agreeable companion, of pleasant address and gay temperament, a good singer and musician, and a skilled orator. Accused by his contemporaries of no slight moral offences, he made no attempt to clear himself of the charges. As a scholar he was a Humanist rather than a theologian. Under the influence of Erasmus, he saw clearly the defects of ecclesiastical life, but could not himself claim to be spotless, and his talents led him to engage rather in disputes concerning secular affairs than to devote himself to clerical reforms. So far he had no intention of introducing doctrinal innovations; such an idea occurred to him first in Zürich after 1519. Luther had already hung up his ninety-five theses against indulgences at the church of the castle in Wittenberg, 31 Oct., 1517.
On 1 January, 1519, Zwingli preached for the first time in the cathedral at Zürich. He began with the exposition of the Bible, taking first the Gospel of St. Matthew, and by going back to the sources showed himself especially a Humanist. Of doctrinal innovation he had still scarcely any thought. Even his stand against the indulgence preacher, Bernhardin Sanson, at the beginning of 1519, was taken with the consent of the Bishop of Constance. The transformation of Zwingli the Humanist and politician into a teacher of the new faith was facilitated by the ecclesiastical and political conditions of the people and public authorities at Zürich and in and in Switzerland in general. The populace displayed great religious zeal externally, e.g., in pious foundations and pilgrimages. This zeal, however, was insufficient to counteract the decay of morals, which resulted especially from the mercenary army system. The clergy to a great extent neglected their obligations, many of them lived in concubinage, and joined in the shameless pursuit of spiritual prebends, thus damaging their prestige. Worthy clerics, however, were not wanting. The Bishop of Constance, Hugo von Hohenlandenberg, was a man of stainless conduct; he endeavoured to do away with abuses, and issued various mandates, but unfortunately without permanent results. This failure was due to the lack of cooperation on the part of the civil rulers, who then enjoyed in eccleslastical matters very extensive rights acquired, especially by Zürich and Berne, from the popes and bishops in consequence of the Burgundian, Swabian, and Milanese wars (1474-1516). Rome, like France, had endeavoured to secure, by the outlay of much money, the services of Swiss mercenaries. In Zürich, the "foremost and supreme place", the council espoused the cause of the pope, and opposed the French party. Zwingli did the same and came into prominence first as a politician, a fact which makes his case essentially different from that of Luther. It was only in 1520 that he voluntarily renounced his papal pension. He then attacked the ruinous mercenary system, and through his efforts Zürich alone of all the cantons refused to enter the alliance with France on 5 May, 1521. However, 2000 mercenaries entered the service of the pope. On 11 Jan., 1522, all foreign services and pensions were forbidden in Zürich. By the publication, 16 May, 1522, of his "Vermahnung an die zu Schwyz, dass sie sich vor fremden Herren hutend", Zwingli succeeded in extending his influence beyond Zürich, although only temporarily.
Owing to his success as a politician his prestige and importance increased. From 1522 he came forward as sponsor of the religious innovations. His first reformatory work, "Vom Erkiesen und Fryheit der Spysen", appeared when the bookseller Froschauer and his associates publicly defied the ecclesiastical law of fasting, and a controversy concerning fasts broke out. Zwingli declared the fasting provisions mere human commands which were not in harmony with Holy Writ; and the Bible was the sole source of faith, as he asserted in his second writing, "Archeteles ". Through the medium of a delegation the Bishop of Constance exhorted the town to obedience on 7 April. On 29 Jan., 1523, the council, on whose decision everything depended, held a religious disputation at Zwingli's instigation, and agreed to base its action on the result of the debate. In sixty-seven theses (his most extensive and important work) Zwingli now proposed a formal programme for the innovations; according to his view the Bible with his interpretation was to be the sole authority. The arguments brought against this view by the most important champion of the old Faith, the vicar-general Johann Faber of Constance, who appealed to the teaching and tradition of the early Church, were disregarded; the council in whose hands Zwingli reposed the government of the Church, forthwith declared in favour of the innovation.
A second religious disputation in October, 1523, dealt with the practical institution of a state church, the veneration of the saints, the removal of images, good works, and the sacraments. No notable representative of the ancient Faith was present. Zwingli urged the adoption of his doctrines so successfully that even his devoted adherent, Commander Schmid of Kusnacht, warned him against the too sudden abolishment of ancient customs and usages. The first steps having been taken in 1522-23, the reforms were carried into effect in Zürich in 1524-25. About Easter, 1524, indulgences and pilgrimages were abolished, the sacraments of Penance and Extreme Unction rejected, and pictures, statues, relics, altars, and organs destroyed, regardless of their artitic value. Sacred vessels of great value, such as chalices and monstrances, were melted into coin. Church property was seized by the State, which gained most by the suppression of the monasteries; the Fraumünster Abbey, founded in 853, was voluntarily surrendered to the secular authorities by the last abbess. Celibacy was rejected as contrary to Holy Writ, and monks and nuns were married. As early as 1522 Zwingli with ten other ecclesiastics as sembled at Einsiedeln and addressed a petition to the Bishop of Constance and to the diet asking freedom for priests to marry "Your honourable wisdom", they declared, "has already witnessed the disgraceful and shameful life we have unfortunately hitherto led with women, thereby giving grievous scandal to everyone." From 1522 the marriage of priests in Zürich became ever more frequent; Zwingli himself on 2 July, 1524, married Anna Reinhard (the widow of Hans Meyer von Knonau), who bore him his first daughter on 31 July. A new marriage law of 10 May, 1525, regulated these innovations. In the spring of 1525 the Mass was abolished; in its place was introduced the memorial service of the Last Supper.
The new doctrines were not introduced without opposition. The first opponents of the Reformers were from the ranks of their own party. The peasants could find no reason in the Bible, the sole principle of faith, why they should contribute to their lords' taxes, tithes, and rent, and they refused any longer to do so. The greatest unrest prevailed everywhere, and was only quelled after long negotiations and some concessions by the Government. The Anabaptists were not so easily silenced. From the Bible, which Zwingli had placed in their hands, they had deduced the most marvellous doctrines, much more radical than Zwingli's and questioning even the authority of the state. Zwingli persecuted them mercilessly with imprisonment, torture, banishment and death; their leader Felix Manz was drowned. The war against these visionary spirits was more serious for Zwingli than that against Rome. At first Rome allowed itself to be soothed by evasive words; the "Lutheran sects" were aimed at and the Zwinglians clung to the word of God, was the information supplied to Clement VII by Zürich on 19 August, 1524. Soon, however, the breach with the ancient Church was too plain to be doubted. The cantons of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug, and Fribourg remained true to the old Faith, and offered determined opposition to Zwingli. They could not see that Zwingli was more favoured by God than the ancient saints and teachers; in his clerical life he was not superior to others, and he was inclined rather towards disturbance than towards peace.
The Catholic cantons, however, also strove to abolish abuses, issuing in 1525 a Concordat of Faith with important reforms which, however, never found general recognition. From 21 May to 8 June, 1526, they held a public disputation at Baden, to which they invited Dr. Johann Eck of Ingolstadt. Zwingli did not venture to appear. The disputation ended with the complete victory for the old Faith, but those who believed that the teaching of Zwingli could be driven out of the world by disputations deceived themselves; it had already taken too deep root. In St. Gall the Humanist and burgomaster Vadian worked successfully in Zwingli's interest - in Schaffhausen, Dr. Sebastian Hofmeister; in Basle, (Ecolampadius. For Berne which, notwithstanding the efforts of Berchtoid Haller, had previously maintained a non-committal attitude, the religious disputation held at Zwingli's suggestion, in Jan., 1528, was decisive. Zwingli himself came to the city, and the Catholic cause was but weakly represented. The new doctrines were then introduced as sweepingly into Berne as they had been at Zürich, and many places and counties which had previously wavered followed its example. Zwingli could also point to brilliant successes in 1528 and 1529. He ensured the predominance of his reforms through the "Christian Civic rights", agreed upon between Zürich and the towns of Constance (1527), Berne and St. Gall (1528), Biel, Mulhausen, and Schaffhausen (1529). To compel the Catholic cantons to accept the new doctrines, he even urged civil war, drew up a plan of campaign, and succeeded in persuading Zürich to declare war and march against the Catholic territories. The Catholic districts had endeavoured to strengthen their position by forming a defensive alliance with Austria (1529), the "Christian Union." At this juncture, however, they received no assistance. Berne showed itself more moderate than Zürich, and a treaty of peace was arranged, which, however, was very unfavourable for the Catholics.
In Zürich Zwingli was now the commanding personality in all ecclesiastical and political questions. He was "burgomaster, secretary, and council" in one, and showed himself daily more overbearing. His insolence indeed prevented an agreement with Luther regarding the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, when a disputation was arranged between the two heresiarchs at Marfurt in October, 1529. As a statesman, Zwingli embarked in secular politics with ambitious plans. "Within three years", he writes, "Italy, Spain and Germany will take our view". Even the King of France, whose greatest enemy he had previously been, he sought to win to his side in 1531 with the work "Christianae fidei expositio", and was even prepared to pay him a yearly pension. By prohibiting intercourse with the Catholic cantons he compelled them to resort to arms. On 9 Oct., 1531, they declared war on Zürich, and advanced to Kappel on the frontiers. The people of Zürich hastened to oppose them, but met a decisive defeat near Kappel on 11 Oct., Zwingli falling in the battle. After a second defeat of the Reformed forces at Gubel, peace was concluded on 23 Oct., 1531. The peace was of long duration, since the Catholic victors displayed great moderation. Zwingli's death was an event of great importance for all Switzerland. His plan to introduce his innovations into the Catholic cantons by force had proved abortive. But even Catholics, who claimed the same rights in religious matters as the people of Zürich, regarded him as the "governor of all confederates". Zwingli is regarded as the most "liberal" of all the Reformers, and was less a dogmatist than Calvin. His statue, with a sword in one hand and the Bible in the other, stands near the municipal library at Zürich, which has also a Zwingli museum.
Heinrich Bullinger (1504-75), Zwingli's successor, undertook the internal development of the new doctrines. His father (also named Heinrich) who was pastor at Bremgarten and embraced the Reformation early, sent Bullinger to Emmerich and Cologne, where he received a thorough Humanistic training. Even from his earliest activity as teacher in the Cistercian monastery near Kappel (1523-29) and later as pastor in Bremgarten (1529 31), Bullinger proved himself a zealous lieutenant of Zwingli's. In 1528 he accompanied the latter to the religious disputation at Berne. On 9 Dec., 1531, he was chosen as Zwingli's successor, pastor of the Grossmünster at Zürich, a position which he held to the end of his life (1575). Bullinger regarded union with Luther on the question of the Lord's Supper as his chief task. For this purpose he composed in 1536, with Myconius and Grynaeus, the "First Helvetic Confession", a profession of faith which was recognized by the Evangelical towns of Switzerland. In the same year also appeared the "Wittenberg Concordia". When Bullinger refused to subscribe to this agreement, which was brought about by Butzer, Luther burst out into abuse of Zwingli. The attempt to bring about an agreement between Bullinger and Calvin on this question at Geneva was more successful, the "Consensus Tigurinus" being concluded between them in 1545. As the expression of his personal religious conviction Bullinger composed the "Second Helvetic Confession", which was printed in 1566, and was recognized by all the Evangelical churches except that of Basle.
Besides discharging the office of preacher, Bullinger displayed great literary activity. He carried on a large correspondence with several crowned heads, with Lady Jane Grey in London, Vadian, Graubundenn, and many others. More than 100 sermons and theological treatises from his pen are known, as well as one drama, "Lucretia and Brutus". His "Diarium" and his extensive history of the Reformation are still valuable. It is an undecided question how far his history is independent and how far a compilation of other writings. In character Bullinger was particularly hospitable, and many fugitives from England and France found refuge with him. Although less overbearing than Zwingli and Luther, he was still intolerant; he approved the execution of Servetus at Geneva. He died on 17 September, 1575.
Zwingli's works were first collected and published by his son-in-law, Rudolf Gwalter, and entitled Opera D. H. Zwingli vigilantissimi Tigurinae ecclesiae Antistitis, partim quidem ab ipso Latine conscripta, partim vero e vernaculo sermone in Latinum translata: omnia novissime recognita, et multis adiectis, quae hactenus visa non sunt (4 fol. vols., Zürich, 1545; reprinted, 1581). The first complete edition was edited by Melchior Schuler and Johannes Schulthess (8 vols., Zürich, 1828-42). Volumes VII and VIII, containing Zwingli's correspondence, are especially important. A new edition of his complete works prepared by Emil Egli (d. 1908), George Finsler, and Walther Kohler is appearing in the "Corpus Reformatorum", LXXXVIII (Berlin, 1905); three volumes I, II, and VII, have already (1912) appeared.